Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should have available the results of a great many strength tests of the particular material chosen. These tests should be made on specimens having the same heat treatment, surface finish, and size as the element the engineer proposes to design; and the tests should be made under exactly the same loading conditions as the part will experience in service. This means that if the part is to experience a bending load, it should be tested with a bending load. If it is to be subjected to combined bending and torsion, it should be tested under combined bending and torsion. If it is made of heat-treated AISI 1040 steel drawn at 500°C with a ground finish, the specimens tested should be of the same material prepared in the same manner. Such tests will provide very useful and precise information. Whenever such data are available for design purposes, the engineer can be assured of doing the best possible job of engineering. The cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is justified if failure of the part may endanger human life or if the part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities. Refrigerators and other appliances, for example, have very good reliabilities because the parts are made in such large quantities that they can be thoroughly tested in advance of manufacture. The cost of making these tests is very low when it is divided by the total number of parts manufactured. You can now appreciate the following four design categories: 1 Failure of the part would endanger human life, or the part is made in extremely large quantities; consequently, an elaborate testing program is justified during design. 2 The part is made in large enough quantities that a moderate series of tests is feasible. 3 The part is made in such small quantities that testing is not justified at all; or the design must be completed so rapidly that there is not enough time for testing. 4 The art has already been designed, manufactured, and tested and found to be unsatisfactory. Analysis is required to understand why the part is unsatisfactory and what to do to improve it. More often than not it is necessary to design using only published values of yield strength, ultimate strength, percentage reduction in area, and percentage elongation, such as those listed in Appendix A. How can one use such meager data to design against both static and dynamic loads, two- and three-dimensional stress states, high and low temperatures, and very large and very small parts? These and similar questions will be addressed in this chapter and those to follow, but think how much better it would be to have data available that duplicate the actual design situation. Failure” is the first word in the chapter title. Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces; has become permanently distorted, thus ruining its geometry; has had its reliability downgraded; or has had its function compromised, whatever the reason. A designer speaking of failure can mean any or all of these possibilities. In this chapter our attention is focused on the predictability of permanent distortion or separation. In strength-sensitive situations the designer must separate mean stress and mean strength at the critical location sufficiently to accomplish his or her purposes.
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